Surveying
Every measurement carries error, and surveying is the discipline of arranging measurements so the errors cannot accumulate. These topics animate the error as it propagates, and the procedure that contains it.
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Principles and chain surveying
The two principles every method in the subject obeys.
- Classification of surveying
- Ranging, chaining and offsets
- Errors in chaining and corrections
- Obstacles in chaining
- Plotting a chain survey
Compass and traverse surveying
Direction as well as distance, and closing the loop.
- Bearings, meridians and local attraction
- Traverse computations: latitude and departure
- Closing error and Bowditch's rule
- Omitted measurements
Levelling and contouring
The vertical dimension, and how the ground is drawn.
- Levelling instruments and temporary adjustments
- Height of instrument and rise and fall methods
- Curvature, refraction and reciprocal levelling
- Contouring and its uses
- Areas and volumes, mass haul diagram
Theodolite and tacheometry
Angles measured well enough to control a whole survey.
- Theodolite adjustments and angle measurement
- Trigonometric levelling
- Stadia and tangential tacheometry
- Triangulation and trilateration
Curves and modern surveying
Setting out geometry, with instruments that do the arithmetic.
- Simple, compound and reverse curves
- Transition curves and vertical curves
- Total station and EDM
- GPS/GNSS and coordinate systems
- Remote sensing and GIS